What Are the Benefits and Risks of Circumcision?

A lot of people quietly wonder, what are the benefits and risks of circumcision before making a decision for themselves or a child. You are not alone if you feel conflicted. Circumcision is a deeply personal choice that sits at the intersection of health, culture, religion, and ethics.

This guide walks you through the key medical benefits and risks that researchers and major health organizations discuss, so you can weigh them against your own values and circumstances.

What circumcision is and how common it is

Circumcision is a surgery that removes the foreskin, the fold of skin that covers the head of the penis. It can be done shortly after birth, in childhood, or in adulthood. In some families it is a religious or cultural practice. In others it is framed as a hygiene or preventive health decision.

Globally, an estimated 38 percent of males are circumcised, with wide variation by country and religion (WebMD). Over 80 percent of the world’s males are not circumcised, and outside of religious communities, routine circumcision of newborns is uncommon in most Western countries (CIRP). The United States is an exception. There, circumcision has often been offered as a standard newborn procedure, with rates around 58 to 60 percent in recent decades (Evidence Based Birth).

Understanding how circumcision compares to the norm in your own region can help you separate social pressure from medical facts as you decide what is right for you or your family.

Medical benefits often cited

Supporters of circumcision usually focus on infection prevention and some long term disease risks. It is helpful to understand what the research actually shows, as well as where the benefits are small, context specific, or still debated.

Lower risk of some infections

Circumcision is associated with a lower risk of several infections, especially in certain settings.

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) in infancy
Newborn circumcision can reduce the risk of UTIs in the first year of life. These infections are relatively uncommon but can be serious in infants. A review of evidence found that neonatal circumcision can help prevent infant urinary tract infections and conditions like balanitis, meatitis, and phimosis (PMC – NCBI).
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
Three randomized trials in African countries found that adult male circumcision reduced heterosexual HIV acquisition by about 51 to 60 percent, with protection increasing over time (PMC – NCBI). These trials took place in regions with high HIV prevalence and specific transmission patterns, so the degree of benefit may not be the same in low prevalence countries.
The same research also found reduced risks of:
Genital herpes by about 28 to 34 percent
Genital ulceration by about 47 percent
High risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) by about 32 to 35 percent in men, and lower HR-HPV and some vaginal infections in their female partners (PMC – NCBI)

Major US medical sources, including Mayo Clinic and WebMD, list lower risk of HIV in high prevalence regions and reduced risk of some STIs as key benefits (Mayo Clinic, WebMD).

Possible reduction in certain cancers

Circumcision appears to reduce the already low risk of penile cancer and may lower some risks for partners.

Men who are circumcised have a lower risk of penile cancer, which is rare overall
Female partners of circumcised men in some studies show reduced rates of high risk HPV, which is linked to cervical cancer (PMC – NCBI)

These are population level effects. For any one person, the absolute cancer risk is small, and other tools like HPV vaccination and safer sex practices are also important.

Prevention and treatment of foreskin problems

For some people, circumcision is done for clear medical reasons rather than as a routine preventive step.

A foreskin that is too tight to retract (phimosis)
Recurrent infections of the foreskin or glans
Scarring conditions that make hygiene painful or difficult

Mayo Clinic notes that circumcision can address these conditions when conservative treatments do not work (Mayo Clinic).

Sexual function and pleasure: what research says

You might worry that circumcision will harm sexual function or pleasure, or you might have heard that it makes no difference. The truth is nuanced, and findings can differ by age at circumcision and the outcomes that are measured.

Several large reviews and clinical sources report that circumcision generally does not affect fertility or overall sexual function such as erection, ejaculation, or ability to orgasm (WebMD, Mayo Clinic). One African trial even found increased penile sensitivity and easier orgasm after adult circumcision, and 97 percent of female partners reported no change or improved sexual satisfaction (PMC – NCBI).

At the same time, other research has found that the foreskin is highly innervated and sensitive, and that its removal can change sensation.

A 2016 analysis described the foreskin as the most densely innervated and sensitive part of the penis, important for complete sexual response (PubMed).
A study of men circumcised as adults found no significant differences in sexual drive or erection compared to uncircumcised men, but nearly half reported decreased masturbatory pleasure and about 20 percent said their overall sex life was worse after surgery (PubMed).

Taken together, these findings suggest that basic sexual function is usually preserved. However, subjective satisfaction and specific types of sensation can change and people do not all experience those changes in the same way.

Immediate medical risks and complications

Circumcision is surgery, so even when it is quick and common, it carries real risks. These are usually low when the procedure is done by an experienced clinician in a sterile environment, but they are not zero.

Common short term risks

The most frequent complications are bleeding and infection.

Bleeding is the most common issue in newborn circumcision. It typically involves only a few drops, but severe bleeding can occur, especially in babies with clotting disorders. This is why a family history of bleeding problems should be reviewed before the procedure (Stanford Medicine).
Infections are usually minor when sterile technique is used, but serious infections such as meningitis, necrotizing fasciitis, gangrene, and sepsis have been reported, particularly when devices like the Plastibell are used and infection is not recognized early (Stanford Medicine).

WebMD and Mayo Clinic both emphasize that these complications are typically rare and manageable, and that the risk is lower when circumcision is performed on newborns by trained doctors in medical settings (WebMD, Mayo Clinic).

According to one review, complication rates for neonatal circumcision are around 0.2 to 0.6 percent, compared with 1.5 to 3.8 percent when circumcision is done in adults (PMC – NCBI).

Rare but serious complications

Although they are rare, some complications can have lifelong consequences.

Reported problems include (Stanford Medicine):

Excessive or insufficient removal of foreskin, sometimes requiring revision surgery
Meatal stenosis, a narrowing of the urinary opening
Urethrocutaneous fistula, an abnormal connection between the urethra and skin
Necrosis of penile tissue
Accidental amputation of the glans when equipment like the Mogen clamp is used incorrectly
Death in extreme cases, often linked to uncontrolled bleeding or overwhelming infection

Abnormal healing can also lead to inclusion cysts, granulomas, keloid scars, or structural issues like chordee, hypospadias, or epispadias in rare scenarios.

These possibilities do not mean circumcision is usually dangerous, but they underline why practitioner skill, proper technique, and immediate follow up care matter.

Pain, stress, and potential psychological impacts

If you are considering circumcision for a baby, it is important to understand that this is a painful procedure. Infants feel pain and respond to it strongly.

Pain and stress in infants

Studies show that neonatal circumcision, especially without anesthesia, causes significant physiological stress:

Heart rates can increase by up to 55 beats per minute
Cortisol levels, a stress hormone, rise three to four times above baseline
Infants display intense behavioral distress, including screaming, choking, and breathing difficulties (CIRP)

Researchers have described circumcision as one of the most painful procedures performed in newborns when adequate pain relief is not used (CIRP). There is also evidence that this stress can:

Disrupt breastfeeding and sleep
Alter mother infant bonding
Lead to longer term changes in how infants respond to pain and possibly in neural pathways related to pain processing (NCBI – PMC, CIRP)

Modern guidelines usually recommend some form of analgesia, but the procedure still involves skin breaking and postsurgical soreness.

Possible long term psychological effects

Some adult men report ongoing emotional and psychological responses they associate with circumcision. Descriptions include anger, loss, shame, victimization, distrust, and lower self esteem, sometimes with intrusive thoughts that resemble post traumatic stress symptoms (CIRP).

A 2017 US based study comparing men circumcised as infants to those who were not found that early circumcision was associated with:

Higher attachment insecurity, both anxious and avoidant
Lower emotional stability
Higher sexual drive and greater openness to casual sex
Higher perceived stress and sensation seeking (NCBI – PMC)

This research did not find differences in empathy or trust, and it did not conclude that circumcision causes mental illness. It did suggest that subtle differences at the individual level could add up to meaningful effects across a population where neonatal circumcision is common. The authors also noted limitations, such as reliance on self report and limited demographic controls.

On the other hand, some large medical reviews and organizations emphasize that many circumcised men report normal psychological well being and no distress related to their status. The reality is likely that responses vary. Some people feel neutral or positive, while others experience significant regret or emotional harm.

Ethics, autonomy, and cultural context

Once you understand the physical benefits and risks, you may still wrestle with the ethical side, especially when the person involved is a newborn who cannot consent.

Autonomy and informed consent

A 2016 ethical analysis argued that non therapeutic circumcision of minors:

Removes a healthy, functional body part
Creates permanent changes without the individual’s consent
Carries risks of physical injury and psychological harm, even when uncommon

The authors concluded that, without a clear medical indication, circumcision conflicts with core medical ethics principles like respect for autonomy, non maleficence, and justice, and that the procedure should be deferred until the person can decide for themselves (PubMed).

That same paper notes that some early medical claims used to justify routine circumcision have not held up under scrutiny, and that statements from some US public health bodies appear out of step with other Western medical organizations (PubMed).

Law, human rights, and cultural bias

Ethical debates are reflected in law and policy too:

In 2012, a German court recognized infant circumcision as criminal assault in a specific case, sparking intense controversy and later legal clarifications (PubMed).
The same 2016 analysis argued that forced circumcision of minors may violate rights to bodily integrity, autonomy, equal protection, and even freedom of religion for the child, since the child’s future beliefs are unknown (PubMed).

Evidence Based Birth points out that research on circumcision is often shaped by cultural norms. US based studies tend to emphasize benefits and minimize harms, possibly influenced by the circumcision status of researchers themselves and the procedure’s cultural acceptance. High quality randomized trials on routine circumcision in healthy newborns are limited (Evidence Based Birth).

At the same time, banning neonatal circumcision raises its own human rights concerns for religious communities, particularly Jewish and Muslim families, who view it as integral to their faith practice (PMC – NCBI).

Social pressure and family norms

Many parents report that their choice is shaped less by medical evidence and more by social expectations:

Wanting a son to look like his father
Concern about locker room teasing
Fear of being judged for choosing differently

One review noted that social and cultural conformity often outweighs rational medical reasoning in parental decisions, and that physicians sometimes provide incomplete or biased information, which makes true informed consent difficult (CIRP, Evidence Based Birth).

Recognizing these pressures can help you pause and ask whether they align with your own values, or whether you want to make space for a different choice.

Considering alternatives and making your decision

If you decide against circumcision, you still have many ways to protect sexual health for yourself or your child.

Uncircumcised men can maintain genital health with simple hygiene and safer sex practices. Medical sources like WebMD and Mayo Clinic stress that:

Good washing habits are usually enough to prevent foreskin related issues
Condom use, vaccination, and regular testing are key tools for preventing STIs
Circumcision does not provide an advantage in orgasm response or fertility, and many uncircumcised men enjoy normal sexual function and pleasure (WebMD, Mayo Clinic)

If medical problems such as phimosis or recurrent infections arise later, circumcision remains an option in childhood or adulthood, although complication rates are higher and recovery is longer than in newborns (PMC – NCBI).

When you are weighing what to do, it can help to:

Separate social expectations from health reasons
Ask your provider to spell out benefits and risks specific to your situation and location
Consider the ethical question of consent if you are deciding for a baby
Reflect on your cultural or religious values and how important this ritual is to you
Remember that choosing not to circumcise is also a valid, evidence supported option

There is no one answer that fits every person or family. Your goal is not to find a perfect choice but an informed one that respects both health information and your deeply held values.

If you feel unsure, it is reasonable to take more time, seek second opinions, and gather perspectives from people you trust. Your body or your child’s body will live with the outcome for a lifetime, so you are allowed to move slowly and thoughtfully.